Thickeners: Formulation, Compatibility, and Regulatory Guidelines

What are thickeners?

Thickeners are ingredients that increase the viscosity and thickness of cosmetic formulations. These substances give a product the desired consistency and performance profile.

Key features of thickeners

Besides controlling flow and rheological properties, thickeners exhibit:

improved spreadability
particle separation
increased emulsion stability
sensory characteristics
prevents phase separation

Hence, they are suitable for creams and lotions used in skin care, hair care, and sun care products.

Families of thickeners - An overview

a. Natural thickeners

They are derived from plant sources. They offer versatile thickening properties.
These include gums (e.g., xanthan gum, guar gum) and cellulose derivatives (e.g., hydroxyethyl cellulose).

b. Synthetic thickeners:

They are chemically synthesized. They help to control the rheology of formulations.
These include acrylates (e.g., carbomer).

c. Associative thickeners

They offer multifunctional benefits, including suspension, stabilization, and emulsion modification.
These include polymeric thickeners (e.g., acrylates/C10-30 alkyl acrylate crosspolymer).

Browse thickener grades used in cosmetic formulations:

By choosing the right thickener, you can create an effective product that is easy to use and comfortable to wear.

How to address incompatibility issues within formulation?

Thickeners must be compatible with other components of the formulation. Incompatibility can lead to several issues.

Phase separation: The formation of distinct layers

Phase separation refers to the separation of different phases within the formulation. It results in the formation of distinct layers or visible boundaries. It occurs when the chosen thickener is incompatible with base ingredients such as oils, emollients and solvents; surfactants, preservatives, active ingredients such as antioxidants, sunscreen agents; pH levels of the formulation. Phase separation can impact the:

stability,
appearance, and
performance of the product.

Phase separation can manifest in different ways. This depends on the type of formulation and the nature of the incompatibility. In emulsion systems, which consist of oil and water phases, phase separation can lead to the separation of these phases. This results in an unstable formulation.

The thickener plays a critical role in stabilizing the emulsion. It provides suitable viscosity and promotes the uniform dispersion of the oil and water phases. When the thickener is incompatible with the emulsifier or other ingredients, it can disrupt the balance between the oil and water phases. This causes them to separate.

Phase Separation Diagram

Factors influencing phase separation

Factors	Description
Incompatibility with emulsifiers	Emulsifiers are responsible for maintaining the stability of emulsions. They form a protective layer around the dispersed droplets. The emulsion process gets affected if the thickener is incompatible with the emulsifier. Thus, the oil and water phases do not stabilize. This leads to phase separation. Here, the oil and water separate into distinct layers.
Improper balance of oil and water phases	The thickener provides viscosity and texture to the formulation. If the thickener is incompatible with the oil and water phases, it can disrupt the equilibrium between these phases. This imbalance can cause phase separation. This results in the denser phase settling at the bottom and the lighter phase floating on top.
Chemical interactions affecting stability	The thickener may undergo chemical interactions with other formulation components. For e.g., surfactants or active ingredients. These interactions can lead to the formation of complexes. It can also cause chemical changes. They can affect the stability of the formulation. Chemical reactions can disrupt the emulsion structure. This finally results in phase separation.
Inadequate compatibility with formulation pH	The pH of the formulation plays a crucial role in stability. Phase separation occurs if the thickener is not compatible with the pH of the formulation. pH-related incompatibilities can affect the thickener's ability to provide viscosity. This in turn affects the stabilization of the formulation.

Demerits of phase separation

Compromised stability: Phase separation leads to an unstable formulation. Such formulation is prone to separation. It changes in texture over time. The lack of stability affects the shelf life of the product. It can result in inconsistent performance upon application.

Undesirable appearance: Phase separation can cause the formulation to appear visually unappealing. The formation of distinct layers or boundaries is displeasing. This can impact consumer perception and acceptance of the product.

Altered texture and sensory attributes: The separation of phases can result in changes in texture, consistency, and sensory attributes of the formulation. This can lead to a compromised user experience. The product may feel grainy, uneven, or unpleasant on the skin.

Ingredient inactivation: The altered efficacy of active ingredients

This can occur in cosmetic formulations when the chosen thickener is incompatible with other formulation components. This leads to reduced efficacy. It can alter the properties of the active ingredients. This can compromise the performance and desired benefits of the product.

Factors influencing ingredient inactivation

Factors	Description
Chemical interactions	Incompatibilities between the thickener and active ingredients can cause chemical interactions. These can alter the properties of the active ingredients. This leads to formation of complexes, degradation of active ingredients, or changes in their solubility or stability. As a result, the active ingredient may lose its intended functionality. It can also exhibit reduced efficacy.
pH-dependent interactions	Active ingredients may have pH-dependent properties. They need specific pH conditions for optimal activity. If the thickener is not compatible with the desired pH range, it can lead to inactivation. It can also cause reduced efficacy. The thickener's effect on the formulation pH can interfere with the active ingredient's stability. It can impact its ability to exert its intended benefits.
Binding or encapsulation effects	Some thickeners may bind or encapsulate active ingredients. This can limit the availability or hinder their release in the formulation. This can prevent the active ingredient from interacting with the target site. It can also hinder the absorption or penetration into the skin. Incompatibility with the thickener can result in inadequate delivery. It can lead to insufficient activity of the active ingredient.
Instability in formulation	This occurs due to the incompatibility between the thickener and other formulation components. The stability of active ingredients can be affected due to some instabilities. For e.g., phase separation or changes in viscosity. Ingredient inactivation can occur when the formulation becomes compromised. This can be due to instability caused by thickener incompatibility.

Demerits of ingredient inactivation

Reduced efficacy: It causes ingredient inactivation of the active ingredients. This leads to diminished product performance. The desired benefits may not be achieved at their intended levels. For e.g., moisturization, anti-aging effects, or UV protection.

Altered properties: Incompatibility with the thickener can alter the properties of the active ingredients. For e.g., changes in solubility, stability, or release profiles. Altered properties can affect the bioavailability and delivery of the active ingredient. This leads to compromised functionality.

Decreased shelf life: Incompatibility can lead to decreased stability of the formulation over time. This can result in a shorter shelf life for the product. This is because the active ingredients may degrade or lose their potency due to incompatibility.

Compromised stability: A major concern in cosmetic formulation

This occurs when the chosen thickener is incompatible with other formulation components. It is a significant concern in cosmetic formulations. It can result in various issues that affect the performance, appearance, and shelf life of the product.

Stages of Instability 2

Various Types of Instability Observed in Different Formulations
(F1) Congealing & Creaming; (F2) Formation of Lumps & Phase Separation; (F3) Oil Separation; (F4) Stable Moisturizing Cream; (F5) Stable Moistirizing Lotion

Factors influencing compromised stability

Factors	Description
Viscosity control in the formulation	The thickener plays a crucial role in providing the desired viscosity to the formulation. But, incompatibilities with other ingredients can lead to unwanted changes in viscosity. The viscosity changes can compromise the application, spreadability, and user experience of the product. For e.g., the thickener may lose its thickening properties. This results in decreased viscosity. It also leads to a thinner consistency. On the other hand, the interactions between the thickener and other ingredients can also cause an increase in viscosity. This makes the formulation thick and difficult to spread.
Navigating texture alteration	Incompatibilities can result in undesirable texture changes, such as graininess, clumping, or gelling. Texture can negatively affect sensory attributes. It also affects the user's perception of the product. It may lead to an unpleasant feel, difficulty in product application, or uneven distribution of the formulation on the skin or hair.
Changes in color and fragrance	Incompatibilities between the thickener and certain ingredients lead to changes in the color or odor of the formulation. For e.g., colorants or fragrance components. These changes can result in an undesirable appearance or scent. The product may develop discoloration or off-putting odors. This impacts consumer acceptance and satisfaction.
Stability during storage	Formulations need to maintain stability throughout their shelf life. This ensures consistent performance and quality. Incompatibilities can compromise the stability of the product during storage. This can lead to issues such as sedimentation, syneresis (water separation), or phase separation. The formulation may lose its homogeneity. This results in an uneven distribution of ingredients and compromised performance upon application.
Degradation of ingredients	Thickener incompatibilities can also contribute to the degradation of other formulation components. For e.g., active ingredients or preservatives. Their chemical reactions can result in degradation or reduced efficacy. Ingredient degradation can compromise the performance and effectiveness of the product.

Compatibility testing – Methods to identify incompatibility issues

Compatibility testing is recommended to address phase separation, ingredient inactivation, and compromised stability. It ensures compatibility between thickener and other formulation components. Various methods help to identify incompatibilities or potential formulation issues. These include:

visual inspection,
stability testing, and
physical property analysis.

Conducting these tests helps in identifying the incompatibilities early in the development process. This ensures that the thickener integrates well with other ingredients. It contributes to the desired properties and stability of the cosmetic formulation.

Visual inspection: The initial assessment

Visual inspection involves observing the formulation for changes. These include changes in appearance, such as color changes, phase separation, or the formation of sediments. This initial assessment can provide valuable indications of compatibility issues. Incompatibilities may manifest in various ways. For e.g., changes in clarity, homogeneity, or visual appearance of the formulation.

Stability testing: Evaluating physical and chemical stability

In stability testing, the formulation is subjected to various conditions. This test evaluates the physical and chemical stability. For e.g., temperature variations, freeze-thaw cycles, and prolonged storage periods. Stability tests can help identify any potential issues that may arise during the product's shelf life. Common stability tests include:

Freeze-thaw stability: In this, the formulation is subjected to multiple cycles of freezing and thawing. This simulates temperature fluctuations. This test assesses the formulation's ability to withstand the changes in temperature. The formulation must not experience phase separation, texture changes, or other stability issues.

Accelerated stability testing: Here, the formulation is exposed to elevated temperatures and humidity conditions. This happens for an extended period, for about weeks or months to check the stability over time. This test helps to predict the performance of the formulation under normal storage conditions.

Long-term stability testing: Here, the formulation is stored under recommended storage conditions. This happens for an extended period, up to the intended shelf life of the product. It helps to assess the stability and compatibility of the formulation over an extended duration.

Are you finding it difficult to test the stability of your product? Avoid stability issues by better organizing & combining your cosmetic product testing.

Testing Stability of Your Cosmetic Formulation

Physical property analysis: Determining specific formulation characteristics

Physical property analysis involves evaluating specific characteristics of the formulation. It enables to identify changes or issues caused by the thickener. Some common physical property analysis methods include:

pH measurement: The pH of the formulation should remain within the desired range. This ensures stability and compatibility. pH changes caused by the thickener may indicate incompatibility with other ingredients. Especially if the formulation contains pH-sensitive components.

Viscosity measurement: The viscosity of the formulation should be within the desired range. This helps to achieve the intended texture and performance. Regular viscosity measurements can help identify any changes or interactions between the thickener and other formulation components.

Rheological analysis: It determines the flow behavior and consistency of the formulation. These tests include shear stress/shear rate analysis and yield stress determination. They can help identify any changes in rheological properties. These changes can arise due to incompatibilities between the thickener and other ingredients.

Assessing the overall performance of the formulation

It is essential to assess the impact of the thickener on the overall performance of the formulation. This includes evaluating attributes such as:

spreadability,
absorption,
skin feel, and
desired rheological properties.

Consumer perception studies and sensory evaluations can provide feedback on the formulation's performance. It also determines the compatibility with the chosen thickener.

Which factors influence the selection of thickeners?

For the selection of an appropriate thickener, it is crucial to understand the specific needs of the formulation. Thickeners should align with the product's intended use. It should also cater to the target audience's preferences. The following are the factors that influence the selection of thickeners.

Tailoring viscosity for optimal selection

The desired viscosity of a formulation is a key consideration for selecting a thickener. Different cosmetic products need varying viscosities to achieve their intended functions. For example:

A lotion or cream may need a moderate viscosity. It should allow easy spreading and absorption into the skin.
A gel may need a higher viscosity for better control and adherence.

The selected thickener should be able to provide the desired viscosity range to meet the requirements. Check out all thickeners for creams, lotions, and gels »

The impact of texture for enhanced user experience

The texture of a cosmetic formulation impacts the user experience and perception. It affects attributes such as:

smoothness,
silkiness,
creaminess, and
overall sensory appeal.

The thickener plays a crucial role in achieving the desired texture of the product. For e.g., a thickener that imparts a luxurious and velvety feel may be preferred for high-end creams. Whereas, a lightweight and non-greasy texture may be desired for lotions. The chosen thickener should align with the desired texture attributes of the formulation.

Safeguarding long-term stability of formulations

Stability helps in maintaining the integrity, appearance, and performance of formulations. Thickeners contribute to the stability of the formulations. It does so by preventing:

phase separation,
syneresis (water separation), or
changes in viscosity.

They ensure that the formulation remains homogenous, consistent, and visually appealing. These properties are to be maintained throughout the shelf life. The thickener should be compatible with the other ingredients and manufacturing processes. It must provide long-term stability to the formulation.

Sensory Attributes: Elevating product experience

Sensory attributes refer to the sensory experience and perception of the product. This includes various factors. For e.g., smoothness, silkiness, greasiness, tackiness, and skin feel. The thickener can impact these attributes by influencing factors such as:

spreadability,
glide,
absorption, and
after-feel.

For e.g., a thickener enhancing spreadability and imparting a non-greasy, lightweight feel can be used for lotions or serums. The chosen thickener should align with the desired sensory attributes of the formulation. This should in turn ensure consumer satisfaction.

The intended use: Leave-on or rinse-off applications

While selecting a thickener, the intended use of the product should also be considered. For example:

Leave-on products need thickeners that provide longer-lasting viscosity and film-forming properties. This ensures that the product remains on the skin. For e.g., moisturizers or serums.

Rinse-off products need thickeners that offer good foam stability and viscosity during application. They should allow easy rinse-off without leaving residue. For e.g., shampoos or body washes. The thickener should be suitable for the specific use of the formulation.

Incorporating the consumer-centric approach

It is crucial to consider the preferences of the target audience. Different consumer groups may have varying preferences for:

viscosity,
texture,
absorption, and
sensory experience.

For e.g., a thickener providing a rich and nourishing feel can be favored by consumers seeking intense hydration. Whereas, those desiring lightweight and fast-absorbing products may prefer a different thickener. This ensures the formulation meets the expectations. It enhances the acceptance of the product.

Checklist for the selection of thickeners by suppliers and manufacturers

Suppliers or manufacturers of thickeners can provide:

valuable technical information,
formulation guidelines, and
support in selecting the most suitable thickeners for specific applications.

Establishing partnerships with reliable suppliers can ease the selection process. It enhances the success of the formulation. Key information should be covered in the technical data from suppliers or manufacturers of thickeners. This information will help formulators to make informed decisions. It ensures the successful integration of the thickener into their cosmetic formulations. Below are some specific details that should be included in the technical data.

Information on chemical properties of thickeners

The technical data should provide information on the chemical composition of the thickener. This includes the:

primary active ingredient(s),
functional groups, and
any other relevant chemical characteristics.

Understanding the composition is essential. This helps in assessing the compatibility of the thickener with other formulation components.

Information on physical properties of thickeners

The technical data should cover the physical properties of the thickener. This includes aspects such as appearance, color, odor (if applicable), solubility, and particle size (if relevant). These properties can impact the formulation process and the final attributes of the product.

Information on rheological properties of thickeners

Detailed information about the rheological properties of the thickener is crucial. This includes:

data on viscosity range,
shear-thinning behavior,
thixotropic properties,
yield stress, and
any other relevant rheological characteristics.

These properties allow formulators to select a thickener that can achieve the desired texture and flow behavior in the final product.

Data about compatibility and stability of thickeners

The technical data should provide information on the compatibility of the thickener. It should be compatible with various formulation components. For e.g., surfactants, emulsifiers, active ingredients, and preservatives. It should also specify incompatibilities with certain ingredients or formulation conditions. Stability data, such as resistance to temperature, pH, and shear, should also be included. This enables to assess the thickener's stability in the formulation.

Guidelines on recommended usage levels

The technical data should provide clear guidelines on the recommended usage levels of the thickener. It should be available for different types of cosmetic formulations. This includes the minimum and maximum concentrations required. It helps to achieve the desired rheological properties and functional benefits. It should also specify specific instructions for incorporating the thickener into the formulation. This includes pre-dispersion or pH change.

Complying with regulatory guidelines

The thickener should comply with relevant regulatory requirements and standards for cosmetic products. It should specify any restrictions, limitations, or maximum usage levels imposed by regulatory authorities. Some certifications include:

Ecocert
Kosher

Vegan

COSMOS

Halal

Safe handling guidelines

The technical data should address any safety considerations. These include potential hazards, handling precautions, storage conditions, and disposal guidelines. This information ensures that formulators handle the thickener safely. The handling should be in accordance with relevant safety regulations.
Guidelines for Safety Handling

What are the test methods influencing the selection of thickeners?

Performance testing is essential to check the effectiveness of thickeners. They help in achieving the desired:

rheological properties,
stability, and
sensory characteristics of the formulation.

Tests may include viscosity measurements, flow analysis, texture analysis, and consumer perception studies. During these tests, it is important to follow standardized protocols. The accuracy and reproducibility of the results must be ensured by multiple measurements. Formulators should consider the specific requirements of the formulations. Thus, they should adapt the testing procedures accordingly.

Exploring viscosity assessment methods for cosmetic formulations

Viscosity is a crucial parameter to assess the thickness and flow behavior of a cosmetic formulation. Various instruments are used to measure viscosity. These are discussed below.

Brookfield viscometer: A rotational tool for accurate viscosity measurement

This is a widely used rotational viscometer. It measures the resistance to flow by rotating a spindle in the sample. It provides viscosity readings in different units. For e.g., centipoise (cP) or millipascal-seconds (mPa·s).

The sample is placed in the viscometer chamber to perform viscosity measurements using a Brookfield viscometer. The appropriate spindle or rotor is selected based on the expected viscosity range of the formulation. The spindle is then immersed in the sample, and the instrument is set to rotate at a specific speed. As the spindle rotates, the viscometer measures the resistance to flow. This provides viscosity readings.
Brookfield Viscometer

Brookfield Viscometer (Source: ResearchGate)

Analyzing cone and plate viscometry for precise viscosity data

This viscometer consists of a cone-shaped spindle placed close to a flat plate. As the sample flows between the cone and plate, the resistance to flow is measured. This provides viscosity data.

With a cone and plate viscometer, a small amount of the sample is placed on the flat plate. The cone is lowered to a predetermined gap distance. The instrument applies a controlled rotational force to the cone, causing the sample to flow. The viscometer measures the torque required to rotate the cone. This correlates to the viscosity of the sample.

Schematic Diagram of Cone and Plate Viscometer (Source: ResearchGate)

Decoding viscosity with rheometry

When a rheometer is used for viscosity measurements, the sample is placed between the appropriate geometry. For e.g., concentric cylinders or parallel plates. The instrument applies a controlled shear stress or shear rate to the sample. The resulting viscosity is determined based on the measured shear stress and shear rate relationship.

Exploring behavior through flow analysis techniques

Flow analysis provides insights into the behavior of a formulation during application and use. It helps to determine several parameters. For e.g., shear-thinning (thixotropic) behavior, flow curves, and yield stress. Equipments used for flow analysis are discussed below.

Utilizing flow cup viscometer for time-based analysis

It measures the time taken for a fixed volume of the formulation to flow through an orifice of known dimensions. The flow time can be used to calculate the viscosity of the sample.

To perform flow analysis using this instrument, the cup should be filled with the sample formulation. The operator then releases the sample through the orifice of the cup. It measures the time taken for the sample to flow out. The flow time can be converted into viscosity using established correlations. This is specific to the flow cup viscometer being used.

Utilizing rotational rheometer for flow analysis

It measures the shear stress and shear rate relationship under controlled conditions. This helps in understanding the behavior of the formulation. It allows the sample to be loaded between the appropriate geometries.

The instrument applies controlled shear rates to the sample. The rheometer measures the resulting shear stress and shear rate relationship. This allows for the determination of flow behavior. The measurement includes shear-thinning properties, flow curves, and yield stress.

Texture analysis techniques to determine cosmetic formulation attributes

Texture analysis involves measuring the mechanical properties of a cosmetic formulation. For e.g., hardness, stickiness, spreadability, and creaminess. It helps to assess the sensory attributes and consumer perception of the product. The equipment used for texture analysis is discussed below.

Texture analyzer: Providing objective data about texture

This instrument applies controlled forces to the formulation and measures several parameters. For e.g., compressibility, adhesiveness, consistency, and elasticity. It provides objective data on the texture characteristics of the product.

To conduct texture analysis, a small amount of the formulation is placed on the sample platform of the texture analyzer. The controlled forces to the sample are applied using a probe or a compression plate. This mimics the mechanical interactions that occur during application or use.

Tensile tester: Measuring tensile strength and elongation properties

A tensile tester measures the tensile strength and elongation properties of a formulation. It can be useful for assessing the:

stretchability,
firmness, and
elasticity of gels, creams, or other products with stretchable properties.

When using a tensile tester for texture analysis, the formulation is typically prepared as a film or a gel sample with specific dimensions. The sample is clamped between the grips of the tensile tester, and a controlled force is applied to stretch or compress the sample. The tensile tester measures the force applied and the resulting elongation or deformation of the sample.

Gathering consumer insights from perception studies

This involves gathering feedback from target consumers. It enables the assessment of their:

preferences,
sensory experience, and
overall satisfaction with the product.

Consumer perception studies help evaluate the impact of thickeners on several attributes. For e.g., spreadability, absorption, greasiness, and overall product performance. This can be done through surveys, questionnaires, interviews, or focus groups. They are discussed as follows.

Surveys and questionnaires: These can be designed by the formulators. They help to gather feedback from target consumers. These surveys may include questions about:
- product performance,
- texture,
- spreadability,
- absorption, and
- overall satisfaction.

Interviews and focus groups: Formulators conduct interviews or organize focus groups. This allows them to directly engage with consumers. Participants can provide detailed feedback on their sensory experiences, preferences, and suggestions for improvement. These qualitative methods help in understanding the subjective aspects of product performance. It allows the identification of areas for refinement.

What are the regulatory guidelines governing the thickeners' selection?

Adherence to regulatory guidelines is vital when selecting thickeners for cosmetics formulations. Thickeners should follow safety and efficacy standards in various regions. Formulators must ensure the selected thickeners are approved for use in their target markets. The specific regulatory guidelines may vary depending on the target market, such as the United States (US) and the European Union (EU). A more detailed explanation of the regulatory considerations for thickeners is given below.

United States (US) regulatory guidelines

In the US, the regulatory authority for cosmetics is the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The FDA regulates cosmetics under the:

Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) and
Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA).

While the FDA does not provide an approved list of thickeners, the ingredients used in cosmetics must be safe for their intended use. Formulators must ensure that the selected thickeners follow the safety standards outlined in the FD&C Act and the FDA's regulations. This includes ensuring that the thickeners do not contain prohibited or restricted substances. They should meet the requirements for labeling, including ingredient declaration. View thickeners that follow US FDA regulations.

European Union (EU) regulatory guidelines

In the EU, cosmetics are regulated under the European Union's Cosmetic Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009. The regulation establishes safety and efficacy requirements for cosmetic products. These are placed in the EU market. Thickeners used in cosmetics must follow the annexes of the cosmetic regulation.

These annexes provide a list of approved substances including thickeners. These annexes specify their conditions of use. Formulators must ensure that the selected thickeners are included in the annexes. They must follow the:

specified restrictions,
maximum concentrations, and
labeling requirements.

Compliance with the EU regulations is indicated by the presence of the International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI) name. INCI must be indicated in the product's ingredient declaration.

Other international regulations

Other regions and countries may have their own specific regulations governing cosmetic products. These are apart from the US and EU regulations. For instance:

Health Canada regulates cosmetics in Canada under the Food and Drugs Act and the Cosmetic Regulations.
The National Medical Products Administration (NMPA) oversees cosmetics in China.
The Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) regulates cosmetics in Australia.

Resume your selection of thickeners after reading this guide.

About Christian Paleka

Christian Paleka is a dedicated professional in the field of cosmetic science committed to advancing his knowledge and expertise in the industry.

Christian is undertaking a diploma in Cosmetic Science to deepen his understanding of formulation techniques, ingredient selection, and regulatory compliance. He has also undertaken numerous university-level units in chemistry throughout his Bachelor's degree.

Christian is also passionate about teaching students about cosmetic science on the online education platform London International Institute of Cosmetic Science. Through this platform, he shares his expertise, research, and industry updates to foster knowledge exchange and promote best practices in cosmetic formulation. With a commitment to continuous learning and a deep passion for cosmetic science, Christian Paleka strives to contribute to the advancement of the industry and the development of safe, effective, and innovative cosmetic products.

References

Li Y, Zhou Z, Zhao X, Zhao H, Qu X. The Rheological and Skin Sensory Properties of Cosmetic Emulsions: Influence of Thickening Agents. J Cosmet Sci. 2018 Jan/Feb;69(1):67-75. PMID: 29658879
Varpe BD, Kulkarni AA, Mali AS. Aloe vera Compositions Used for Medicinal Applications: A Patent Review (2013-till 2020). Recent Pat Food Nutr Agric. 2021;12(2):104-111. doi:10.2174/2212798411999201228192616. PMID: 33371842. Rheological characterization of flow inception of thixotropic yield stress fluids using vane and T-bar geometries - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate
Horoiwa, Thais & Oliveira, Aurenice & Migotto, Amanda & Cerize, Natalia. (2019). Process Evaluation of Sugar-Based Polymeric Colloidal Nanocarrier Formation. Materials Research. 22. 10.1590/1980-5373-mr-2018-0074
Rheological characterization of flow inception of thixotropic yield stress fluids using vane and T-bar geometries - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate
Image (Phase Separation)- Horoiwa, Thais & Oliveira, Aurenice & Migotto, Amanda & Cerize, Natalia. (2019). Process Evaluation of Sugar-Based Polymeric Colloidal Nanocarrier Formation. Materials Research. 22. 10.1590/1980-5373-mr-2018-0074. Licensed under Creative Commons
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Comprehensive Guide to Selecting Thickeners for Cosmetic Formulations